# References

> References — Research Peptide Fundamentals — Definitive Peptides — The aggregated citation list for the Definitive Peptides research reference: peer-reviewed sources on BPC-157, semaglutide, thymosin alpha-1, CJC-1295 and MOTS-c, with DOIs and PubMed links.

**RESEARCH PEPTIDE FUNDAMENTALS / REFS**

Every source cited across the five compound pages, the comparison, and the FAQ, gathered in one place.

## References

The list below aggregates the cited literature across all five peptides on this desk — BPC-157, semaglutide, thymosin alpha-1, CJC-1295 and MOTS-c. Each entry gives authors, title, journal and year, with a DOI and a PubMed or PubMed Central link where available. A citation is listed once and referred to by its number throughout the site. Where a source is a narrative review or comprehensive literature summary rather than a primary trial, it is cited as such in the text.

## References

[1] Lee E, Burgess K. Safety of Intravenous Infusion of BPC157 in Humans: A Pilot Study. Altern Ther Health Med. 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40131143/
[2] McGuire FP, et al. Regeneration or Risk? A Narrative Review of BPC-157 for Musculoskeletal Healing. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40789979/
[3] He L, et al. Pharmacokinetics, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of body-protective compound 157, a potential drug for treating various wounds, in rats and dogs. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:1026182. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36588717/
[4] Hsieh MJ, et al. Therapeutic potential of pro-angiogenic BPC157 is associated with VEGFR2 activation and up-regulation. J Mol Med (Berl). 2017;95:323-333. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27847966/
[5] Xue XC, et al. Protective effects of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on gastric ulcer in rats. World J Gastroenterol. 2004;10:1032-1037. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15052688/
[6] Staresinic M, et al. Gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 accelerates healing of transected rat Achilles tendon and in vitro stimulates tendocytes growth. J Orthop Res. 2003;21:976-983. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14554208/
[7] Sikiric P, et al. Brain-gut Axis and Pentadecapeptide BPC 157: Theoretical and Practical Implications. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2016;14:857-865. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27138887/
[8] Aronne LJ, et al. (SURMOUNT-5 Investigators). Tirzepatide as Compared with Semaglutide for the Treatment of Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40353578/
[9] Perkovic V, et al. (FLOW Trial Committees and Investigators). Effects of Semaglutide on Chronic Kidney Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2024. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38785209/
[10] Lincoff AM, et al. (SELECT Trial Investigators). Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2023. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37952131/
[11] Wilding JPH, et al. (STEP 1 Study Group). Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2021. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33567185/
[12] Smits MM, Van Raalte DH. Safety of Semaglutide. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34305810/
[13] Wu J, Pei F, Zhou L, et al. The efficacy and safety of thymosin alpha1 for sepsis (TESTS): multicentre, double blinded, randomised, placebo controlled, phase 3 trial. BMJ. 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39814420/
[14] Dominari A, Hathaway Iii D, Pandav K, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. World J Virol. 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33362999/
[15] Liu Y, Pan Y, Hu Z, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Reduces the Mortality of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 by Restoration of Lymphocytopenia and Reversion of Exhausted T Cells. Clin Infect Dis. 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32442287/
[16] Costantini C, Bellet MM, Pariano M, et al. A Reappraisal of Thymosin Alpha1 in Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol. 2019. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31555601/
[17] Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23327199/
[18] Granata R, Leone S, Zhang X, Gesmundo I, et al. Growth hormone-releasing hormone and its analogues in health and disease. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2025;21(3):180-195. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39537825/
[19] Henninge J, Pepaj M, Hullstein I, Hemmersbach P. Identification of CJC-1295, a growth-hormone-releasing peptide, in an unknown pharmaceutical preparation. Drug Test Anal. 2010;2(11-12):647-650. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.233
[20] Sackmann-Sala L, Ding J, Frohman LA, Kopchick JJ. Activation of the GH/IGF-1 axis by CJC-1295, a long-acting GHRH analog, results in serum protein profile changes in normal adult subjects. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2009;19(6):471-477. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19386527/
[21] Teichman SL, Neale A, Lawrence B, Gagnon C, Castaigne JP, Frohman LA. Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(3):799-805. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16352683/
[22] Ionescu M, Frohman LA. Pulsatile secretion of growth hormone (GH) persists during continuous stimulation by CJC-1295, a long-acting GH-releasing hormone analog. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(12):4792-4797. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17018654/
[23] Kumagai H, Kim SJ, Miller B, et al. MOTS-c modulates skeletal muscle function by directly binding and activating CK2. iScience. 2024;27(11):111212. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39559755/
[24] Bolignano D, Greco M, Presta P, Duni A, et al. The Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide MOTS-c May Refine Mortality and Cardiovascular Risk Prediction in Chronic Hemodialysis Patients: A Multicenter Cohort Study. Blood Purification. 2024;53(10):824-837. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39111290/
[25] Wan W, Zhang L, Lin Y, Rao X, Wang X, Hua F, Ying J. Mitochondria-derived peptide MOTS-c: effects and mechanisms related to stress, metabolism and aging. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2023;21(1):36. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36670507/
[26] Reynolds JC, Lai RW, Woodhead JST, Joly JH, Mitchell CJ, Cameron-Smith D, Lu R, Cohen P, Graham NA, Benayoun BA, Merry TL, Lee C. MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis. Nature Communications. 2021;12(1):470. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33473109/
[27] Kim KH, Son JM, Benayoun BA, Lee C. The Mitochondrial-Encoded Peptide MOTS-c Translocates to the Nucleus to Regulate Nuclear Gene Expression in Response to Metabolic Stress. Cell Metabolism. 2018;28(3):516-524.e7. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29983246/

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Definitive Peptides is an independent research desk that traces every claim on this site to a cited source — not a clinic, not a supplier, and never a substitute for a licensed clinician's judgment.